Добро должно быть с кулаками. А зло - с тентаклями. Народная мудрость (с)
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Theoretical English
Lecture of 7.09.2011
• The subject of theoretical grammar. The branches of grammas and the connection of grammar with other disciplines.
• Levels of language, syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations.
Language is social by nature. As the society is changing the language is changing too.
Language consists of 3 parts: phonological, lexical and grammar systems.
The phonological system is the set of material appear of the units.
Lexical system is the set of the meaning units. (words and word combinations)
Grammatical system is the set of regularities determining the regulation of these means.
The analytical aims to get insides of the structure and to expose the mechanisms of functioning of these levels. The aim of theoretical grammar is the present the theoretical description.
Mood, voice, number, aspect, tense, communicative purpose.
The nature of grammar is better understood in the light of: the plain of content, the plain of expressions.
The plain of content comprises the purely semantic elements and the plain of expression – material or formal units. (they’re always inseparately connected)
Polysemy, homonymy and synonymy.
The morphemic material element as the plain of expression homonynically refers to the grammatical 3rd person singular of the verb. Pres. Tense, the plural of the noun and possessive case of nouns.
Modern linguistics lays the special stress on the systemic character of language and on it’s constituence.
The units of interdependecies are: classes and subclasses of words, and subtypes of syntactic constructions. Each system is structure of elements connected by common function.
The difference between language and speech. Language is just a system of means of expression. Speech should be understood as the process of manifestation of the system of language.
Language and speech are inseparable.
Syntegmatic and paradigmatic relations. The units of language are of 2 types segmental and supersegmental. Segmental consists of phonems which are the smallest material segments of the language.
The units of each level are characterized by their own functional features. The first level is formed by phonems. Phonems diffirenciate the meanings of morphems and words. The shortest morphem can consist of one phonem. The meaning of morphem is abstract and significative.
Lecture of 14.07.2011
They’re nominative units which express nominative meanings.
The fourth level – word combinations.
Can express things actions qualities and even situation (a complicated task, their sudden departure.)
The fifth level – sentence. Express predication. They show the relations to the event of reality. (real/unreal, desire/obligatory, )
The sixth level – supraphrasal unities/text. The text is characterized by a number of features, the name is the unity of topic.
Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations.
Syntagma is a linear combination of the units of the same level. The morphems can be also united in syntagmatic relations.
Paradigmatic relations. (a child, children; go, went, gone.) Paradigm is the system of variants of the same unit. Paradigmatic relations are relations between the invariance of different unit.
Associative relations are kept in our minds.
Sentences can be organized into paradigms according to the category purpose of communication.
Paradigmatic relations coexist with syntagmatic relations.
The minimum paradigm consists of 2 form stages.
• Grammatical meaning. Grammatical form. Grammatical category. Grammatical meanings.
• Types of grammatical oppositions.
совокупность значений противопоставленных друг другу, регулярно выражаемых одним и тем же способом.
Грамматические категории опосредованно связаны с реальными закономерностями.
Грамматическое значение слова – значение, выражаемое типизированными формальными средствами характерными для грамматического класса слов.
В языках мира существует 9 основных способов выражения грамматических значений. Некоторые из них связаны с морфологическими категориями, некоторые с синтаксическими.
• Аффиксация – грамматическое значение выражается при помощи служебных морфем.
• Внутренняя флексия – закономерное чередование гласных внутри корня, или на стыке морфем.
• Повтор или редупликация. (сильный сильный)
• Словосложение
• Служебные слова – специальные слова имеющие грамматическое значение, но не имеющие лексическое.
• Порядок слов
• Ударение – указывает на принадлежность слова к части речи.
• Интонация
• Суплетивизм (person/ people)
The categorical meaning unites the individual meanings of the correlated paradigmagtic forms and exposed through them.
A category is a meaning of the form in the certain position. The ordered set of the grammatical forms expresses the categorical function constitutes a paradigm. Paradigmatic correlations are exposed by grammatical oppositions. The opposition is generalized correlation of linguo forms by means of which a certain function is expressed. Differential features express the function.
Voiced and divoiced consonance.
Gradual opposition. Formed by contrassitive group of members.
In various contextual position one member can be used in the position of the other. This phenomenon is called oppositional substitution. The weak\unmarked member of categorical opposition of number has replaced the strong member. Neutralization of oppositions can happen due to more general semantics of the weak member. The second kind is transposition. All the categorical oppositions can be divided into synthetical and analytical. Build up by combination of at least 2 words. Inner flection, outer flection and suplitivity.
A. Inner flection – phonemic interchange and not productive. Is used in English irregular verbs. (for the formation of past indefinite and past participle)
Suplitivity is not productive either (to be, to go) and irregular forms of comparative and superlative adjectives.
Typical suffixes of nouns, adjectives.
Analytical forms. They’re typical for modern English.
Degrees of comparasing.
Morphemic structures of the verbs and types of morphems.
Morphology is the brunch of linguistics which concerns itself with the structure of words as dependant on the meaning of constituent morphems. Also it’s the system of morphological oppositions in a given language including their grammatical categories which are the unity of form and content.
Phonems have no meaning on their own, they only serve to differentiate the meaning of other units which are morphems. The morphological system of language reveals its properties through the morphemic structures.
Morphems and words. In studying the morphem we actually study the word.
Word is extremely complex and many sided phenomenon. The word can be defined as minimal potential sentence. Minimal free linguistic form. The elementary component of the sentence. The articulate sound symbol. Uninterupted strain of morphems, etc. Thus the definitions of the words can be formal functional and mixed but generically the word is not commonly accepted as the basic element of the language. In particular American scholars, represantatives of desctiptive linguistics founded by Leonard Bloomfield, recognized not the word and sentence, but phonem and morphem as basic unit. These units are the easiest to be isolated in the continual text due to their physicaly minimal segmental character. Phonem is minimal formal segment and morphem is minimal meaningful segment. Each speaker has at his disposal a ready stock of naming units by which he can build up an infinite number of utterances. Reflecting changing situations in reality. A meaningful segmental component of the word formed by phonemes. The word is a nominative unit of language formed by morphems and it enters the lexicon of language as if an elementary component. Together with other nominative units the word is used in the formation of the sentences.
Types of morphemes. In traditional grammarthe study of morphemic structure is based on two main criteria: positional and functional.
Route morphems (they express material part of the meaning) and affixes (specificational part of the meaning)
Inflections or grammatical suffixed express morphological categories.
In the lexicon of everyday speech the preferable morphemic types of stems are route and affix.
Lecture of 28.09.2011
Types of distribution. Distributional morpheme types.
• Significative meaning
• Suplitivity
Allo-emic theory,allomorph,complimentary distribution, contrastive distribution and non-contrastive distribution, distributional analyses, full and empty morphemes, free and bound morphemes, overt and covert morphemes, continuous and discontinuous morphemes.
Allo – other\diffetent.
Insights into the correlation between the formal and functional of morphemes within composition of the word may be gained in the light of allo-emic theory. All linguo units are described by means of allo-terms and eme-terms.
Eme-terms – general invariant.
Allo-terms – concrete manifestations. (variants)
The allo-emic indetification of linguo elements is achieved by distributional analyses. The aim of distributional analysis is to fix and study the units of language dependant on the textural environments.
The environment of the unit may be either right or left.
The distribution of the unit is the total of all its environment in generalized terms.
There are 3 types of distribution (go to termins)
Contrasitive – the morphs are set to be … if their meaning of functions are different. Such morphs constitute different morphemes. (the suffixes –ed and –ing)
The moprhs are set to be in non contrasitive distribution if their meaning is the same. (suffixes –ed and -t)
Complimentary distribution. If 2 or more morphs have same meaning and the difference in their forms explained by different environments these morphs are set to be … and considered the allomorphs of the same morpheme.
On the bases of degree of self-independence the morphemes can be divided into free and bound.
Bound morphemes can’t form words by themselves. They’re indentified only as component segmental part of the word.
Free morphemes can build words by themselves i.e. can be used freely.
There are very few productive bound morphemes.
• (e)s
• (e)d, t
• -ing
• -er\-est
On the basis of linear characteristics continuous and discontinuous morphemes are distinguished.
Discontinuous morphemes uninterruptedly expressed. It’s 2 element grammatical unit, which is identified in the analytical forms and consists of auxiliary word and grammatical suffix.
• Be … ing
• Have … ed\en
• Be … ed\en
Overt and covert morphemes
On the basis of formal presentation overt and covert morphemes are distinguished.
The covert morpheme is identified as a contrastive absence of a … expressing a certain function.
Parts of speech.
Силлогизм – из 2 утверждений появляется 3.
Выделяются 4 класса знаменательных слов:
• Существительное
• Глагол
• Прилагательное
• Наречие
Для их разграничения используются 3 критерия:
• Семантический
• Морфологический
• Синтаксический
Местоимения выделаются на основании замещения.
Lecture of 05.10.2011
The problems of parts of speech classification
The classification of word classes has always been one of contaversial issues of linguistics.
The term parts of speech itself present a certain problem. It was developed in ancient Greek linguistics and it reflects that there was no distinction between speech and language. And also they didn’t make difference between word as a part utterance and part of lexis. Therefore the term parts of speech is accepted by modern linguists as conventional. The parts of speech is lexico-grammatical … of words correlating with each other in the general system of language on the basis of their grammatically relevant properties. They are semantic, formal and functional. Semantic criteria refers to generalized semantic properties, common to the whole class of words eg. The meaning of nouns is thinness, the meaning of verb is process, the meaning of adjectives is substantive property. The formal criteria describes word building and word changing, characteristics for particular parts of speech eg. The noun is characterized by specific set of word building affixes. The noun can be changed according to the categories of number, case and article determinations. Function critera is based on the function that the words of particular class fulfill in the sentence. Traditional … is based on three criteria.
Виноградов, Смирницкий.
All parts of speech are subdivided in functional and notional. … They have incomplete nominative value. They’re unchangeable, constructional syntactic function. Controversial points in traditional classification. The 3 criteria turn out to be relevant just for the subdivision of notional words. Functional words are characterized by the absence of all 3 together. They don’t have their syntactic function on their own. Border lines between different classes of words are quite rigorous. Finite and non-finite(inf. Gerund, Participle ) verbs forms. In accord with the functional characteristics of word classes this approach is more expressive. And it was developed by representatives of descriptive linguistics. (Harris, Bloomfield etc.) They selected the most widely used grammatical constructions and used them as substitution frames. Those frames were divided into parts and each of them got a separate number. Then they conducted the series of substitution tests to find out which words can be used in each of the positions. Eg. The concert was good. The clerk remembered the tax.
All the words that can be used in the place of article made into one group, the ones that could be used instead of “clerk” made another group.
Lecture of 12.10.2011
The article, the preposition, the conjunction, the particle, the modal verbs and the interjection (междометие) are all functional words.
The article expresses specific limitation of the substantive functions.
The preposition expresses dependences and interdependences of substantive reference.
The conjunction expresses the connections of the phenomena.
The particle unites the functional words of specifying and limited meaning.
To these series should be referred verbal postpositions.
The modal verbs express the attitude of the speaker to the reflective situation.
Here belong the functional words of probability. (qualitative evaluations (fortunately, luckily))
Interjections are just signals of the notions. It occupies the detached position in the sentence.
Each part of speech is further subdivided into subseries.
The nouns can be subdivided into – proper and common, animate and inanimate, countable and uncountable, concrete and abstract.
The verbs are subdivieed into – transitive and intransitive, actional and state, etc.
Adjectives are subdivided into – qualitative and relative, constant feature and temporary feature.
Категория числа, падежа и определенности\неопределенности и рода.
Количественная характеристика предмета выражается формами числа, только если эта форма исчисляемая. В английском языке она поддерживается наличием или отсутствием неопределенного артикля. В классе неисчисляемых существительных, к которым относятся вещественные и абстрактные формы, множественного числа нет, а форма единственного числа лишена количественного значения. Эта категория выражается другими лексическими средствами. (few, some, a little) В обоих языках есть собирательные существительные у которых значение множественности а форма единственного числа(group, family, police). Некоторые из собирательных существительных допускают расчлененное представление данной совокупности объектов. Некоторые типы собирательных существительных сами являются исчисляемыми (family-families). В обоих языках собирательность может также выражаться как особой лексемой (group of, number of) так и особым суффиксом (-ство, -hood). И в русском и в английском есть существительные которые имеют форму только множественного числа(pluralia tantum), такие как парные объекты (scissors) а также объекты, состоящие из нескольких элементов (slums).
Категория падежа имени существительного. С точки зрения формы, падеж – морфологическая форма, но по содержанию – синтаксическая, поскольку падеж служит для обозначения связи существительного и связанного с ним словом. В древнеанглийском существовало 4 падежа, в современном осталось лишь 2 (общий и притяжательный) [common and possessive case]. Ряд функций в английском языке выражается с помощью порядка слов, а также с помощью предлогов. Редукция безударных окончаний. Но даже при наличие двух падежей в английском представляется проблематичным существование редукции и омонимии.
• Система падежей существительного не совпадает с падежной системой местоимений.
• Возможность употребления английского существительного в форме притяжательного падежа зависит от его лексического значения.
• Существительное в притяжательном падеже употребляется в атрибутивной форме и только в препозиции.
• В английском языке существует групповой притяжательный падеж.
• При употреблении английского существительного во множественном числе проблематично существование формы притяжательного.
• В английском, притяжательный падеж имеет ограниченный набор значений.
Падежная система английского языка отражает лишь один тип синтаксических отношений – атрибутивные отношения в словосочетаниях.
Категория рода. Собственно грамматической категории рода в английском нет. Хотя существует некоторый набор лексических и словообразовательных способов родовой и половой принадлежности. Существует корреляция по роду между некоторыми типами существительных и заменяющими их местоимениями. При олицетворении в баснях используется местоимение мужского рода в независимости от пола.
Lecture of 19.10.2011
(- синтагма, I парадигма)
Сказки. Любое животное в сказках представлено как существо мужского пола, за исключением случаев, когда специально указывается женский пол или поведение.
Название судов и транспортных средств традиционно соотносится с женским родом, но если нейтральных, то средний род.
При употреблении ласкательного оттенка по отношению к неодушевленному предмету, употребляется одушевление (he/she). В русском языке метафорической соотнесенности не отмечается.
Средний род в основном отмечается у неодушевленных предметов.
Словообразовательные суффиксы (woman-teacher; manservant; boy-friend; he-wolf; billy-goat; nanny-goat)
Категория определенности\неопределенности.
Эта категория в английском выражается через артикли.
Категория семантическая (хотя грамматикализована).
Артикли всегда находятся в препозиции с существительными.
Способы образования:
• Синтаксический способ (с помощью порядка слов). Обстоятельства места или направления являются ремой. In the middle of the room stood a table. They came a knock in the door.
• Лексический способ (существительное + неопределенное\указательное …) A doctor told me.
• Способ близкий к аффиксации.
The noun as the part of speech has a categorical meaning of substance. As it follows from this the noun is the main nominative part of speech. The noun has the power by way of nomination to isolate different properties of substances. The categorial functional properties of the noun are determined by its semantic properties. The most characteristic substantive function of the noun is that of the subject. Other syntactic functions (predicative, adverbial etc.) aren’t characteristic of its substantive quality.
The noun is characterized by some special types of combinability. In particular typical of the noun is combinability ...
But English nouns can easily combine by sheer contact. In this contact group the noun in preposition plays the role of semantic qualifier to the noun in postposition.
As a part of speech the noun is also characterized by a set of formal features. It has its word building distinctions including compound stem models, conversion patterns etc. It discriminates grammatical categories of gender, number, case and article determination. These formal features taken together are relevant to the division of nouns of several subclasses. The most general subclasses of nouns are grouped into 4 oppositional pairs.
The first – is proper nouns. The foundation of this division is type of nomination.
The second – animate\inanimate nouns.
The third – human\non-human nouns.
There is a regular contradiction between the presentation of gender in English by theoretical … and practical manuals.
In theory gender is defined as purely lexical or semantic.
The category of gender is expressed in English by the obligatory correlation of nouns with the personal pronouns of the third person.
The category of gender is strictly oppositional. It’s formed by 2 oppositions related to each other.
The other opposition functions in subset of person nouns only.
As a result of double oppositional correlation a specific system of 3 genders rises which is misleadingly represented by traditional terminology. (neuter gender, masculine, feminine)
A great many person nouns in English are capable of expressing both feminine and masculine person genders and these are referred to as nouns of (common gender) eg. Person, friend, doctor, president, etc.
Alongside of the grammatical gender distinctions English nouns can show the sex of their reference lexically either by means of being combined with some notional words used as sex indicators or by suffixal
In Russian, german and many other languages characterized by the gender division of nouns the gender has purely formal features that may even run contrary to semantics.
The category of number. That category is expressed by the opposition of the plural form of the noun to the singular form. The strong member is the plural because it has its productive formal mark. The other non-productive ways of expressing the number opposition
Lecture of 26.10.2011
• Category of the number of the noun
• Category of the gender of the noun
• Category of the case of the noun.
The simple meaning of singular is one, opposed to the meaning of the plural in the sense of more than one. (book-books)
However there exist singulars and plurals that can’t be counted by this approach. (Eg. Potato – potatoes, paper (material) – papers (notes))
It’s sometimes stated that plural form presents both multiplicity of units of measure or invisible object.
To other varieties belong the cases where plural form expresses the definite set of objects. (eyes, wheels)
Intensity of the presentation of the idea. (years and years)
Picturesque.
The extreme point of this semantic scale is marked by lexicalization of the plural form.
Attentions (wooing)
The most general quantity of characteristics of individual words constitute lexico-grammatical base for division of the nouns into countable and uncountable
The constant categorical feature cuantatitive is closely connected with … since uncountable nouns can be either singular or plural
In the sentence they take the finite form of singular while plural uncountable take the finite in the plural.
Singularia tantum and plularia tantum.
The absolute singular is characteristic of abstract notions.
Always singural: the names of materials, of collective inanimate objects.
Since the grammatical form of uncountable nouns of singularia tantum subclass isn’t excluded by the category of number we speak of it as absolute singular and it’s different from common singular of the countable nouns.
The absolute singular excludes the using of modifying numeral one as well as indefinite article.
Common number with uncountable singular nouns can also be expressed by combining them with words showing discreetness.
And this kind of rendering the grammatical meaning of common number can be regarded a special suplitivuty.
The absolute plural is different from common plural cannot directly combine with numerals and only occasionally combines with discreet quantifiers.
Characteristic of uncountable nouns which denotes objects consisting of 2 halves. The nouns expressing some sort of collective meaning rendering the idea of indefinite plurality.
Nouns denoting some diseases and states of body and mind (usually abnormal)
Last type consists repetition groups.
Category of case. Different case theories.
Case is morphological category of the noun. Represented in the forms of noun declention.
Thus the case form of the noun is a morphological declention of form
This category is expressed by a opposition of the form in “ ‘s ” usually called possessive or genetive case.
Lecture of 2.11.2011
All the nounal cases the march spoken genitive are considered as extinct. And the linguo unit which is called genitive case by force of tradition would be in reality just a combination of a noun with postposition. Thus this theory could be called “Theory of possessive postposition”.
Direct and oblique cases. A 2 case declension of nouns should be recognized in English with it’s common case as direct one and the genitive one as the only oblique. But unlike the case system in ordinary noun declensional languages based on inflectional word change the case system in English is founded on the particle expression. The particle nature of apostrophe –s is evident from the fact that it’s added in postposition both to individual nouns and to nounal groups.
The following basic semantic types of genitive case.
Genetive of possessor means possessional relation in the broad sense.
The meaning of organic possession.
The genitive of agent. This form renders and activity or some brought-up processional relations with the referent with the genitive and it’s subject.
The genitive of patient. It expresses the recipient of the action or process denoted by head noun.
The genitive of dispenced qualification.
The genitive of adverbial.
Article is a determining unit of specific nature accompanying the noun in communicative collocation. Its special characters clearly seen against background of determining words of half notional … where is the functions of determiners (this,any,some) is to explicitly interpret the referent of the noun, the semantic purpose of the article is to specify the nounal referent in the most general way without any explicitly expressed contrasts.
In the absence of the determiner the use of the article is obligatory.
The definite article expresses the identification or individualization of the referent of the noun. The use of this article shows that the object denoted mistaken in its concrete individual quality. This meaning can be brought to explicit exposition by a substitution test. The test consists in replacing the article used in a construction by a demonstrative word.
The indefinite article is commonly referred noting the object denoted by the noun to a such a class of similar objects.
Zero article (meaningful non-use of the article)
• Meaningful absence of the article before the countable noun in the singular signifies that the noun is taken in abstract sense. (Law begins with the beginning of human society)
• Before the uncountable noun.
Часто в словосочетаниях сущ+сущ трудно ограничить что это.
В разговорной речи чаще используется аналитическая форма, а если прилаг. В форме определения то синтетическая.
Прилагательное в русском языке может иметь краткую и полную форму. В английском кратких нет.
Категория состояния.
The adjective expresses the categorical semantic property of a substance. It means that each adjective which used in the text presupposes the relation to some noun the property of whose referent it denotes.
Its material, color, dimensions, position, state, and other characteristics that can be permanent or temporary. It follows from these that unlike nouns adjectives don’t possess full nominative value.
Lecture of 9.11.2011
The adjective has semantically bound character. And this semantically bound character is emphasized by the use of the word substitute “one(s)” in the absence of the notional head noun. If the adjective is placed in a self-dependant position this leads to substantivazation. Adjectives are distinguished by a specific combinability with nouns which they modify by a combinability with link verbs. (to be\get) And also by combinability with combined adverbs.
In the sentence the adjectve performs a role of attribute and a predicative. The predicative adjective expresses some attributive property of its own referent. When used as predicative or postpositional attributes a lot of adjectives are distinguished by complementive combinability with nouns. The complement expansions of adjectives are reflected by means of prepositions.
Many such collectival collocations render verbal meanings and some of them have direct or indirect parallels among verbs.
To the derivational features of adjectives belong a number of suffixes and prefixes. (-ful, -able, -ess, -nt, -(a)l, -ive, -ly, -y, -ous, -ic, -ish) (a-, un-, im-, ir-, il-, dis-)
The classes of adjectives. All the adjectives are divided into 2 large classes: qualitative and relatative.
Relatative adjectives express such .. of a substance as are determined by the direct relation of the substance to some other substances. (wooden heart, surgical treatment, medieval rights)
Qualitative adjectives denote qualitative substance which admit quantitative estimation. The measure of the quality can be estimated as high and low, sufficient and insufficient. This quality expressed by the usage of modifying adverbs (very, absolutely, rather, quite, extremely)
In this connection the ability of the adjective to form degrees of comparison of its qualitative character.
Among the words signifying properties of a nounal referent there is a lexemic set which can be recognized as a separate part of speech.
The category of adjectival comparison expresses the quantitative characteristic of a quality of a nounal referent.
Verb as a part of speech.
Grammatically the verb is the most complex part of speech. This is due to its central role that It performs in the expression of predicative functions of the sentence that is the functions establishing the connection between the situation named in the utterance and the reality. The general categorical meaning of the verb is process presented dynamically that is developing in time.
The processual semantic character of the verbal lexeme in the non-finite form is proved by the fact that in all its forms it’s modified by the adverb. The processual categorical meaning of the notional verb determines its characteristic combinability expressing both the doer of the action and the recipient of the action.
From the point of view of their outward structure verbs are characterized by specific forms of word-building and by the formal features expressing the corresponding grammatical categories.
Lecture of 16.11.2011
The original simple verbs stems are not numerous. (E.g. go, take, read)
Conversion (zero suffixation) (noun verb) greatly enlarges the number of such stems.
Sound replacive and stress replacive aren’t productive (food – to feed, blood – to bleed)
Expanded forms (with the help of suffixes –ate, - en, - ify, -ize)
The prefixes that can also prevent to verb stem (-en\-em,)
Composite or compound stems correspond to non-verb stems from which they etiologically derived.
The category of finitude which divides the category to finite and non-finite.
Among the various forms of the verb the infinitive occupy the unique position. It’s principal representative of the verb …
Semi-notional and functional verbs only show the connection between the nominative content of the sentence and the reality.
The basis for the verb division is subject …
Action verbs express an action performed by a subject.
According to if the verb can or can’t have the power to take compliment or object, the notional verbs can be classified as complementive or uncomplementive.
Verbal objectivity is an ability of the verb to take any object.
To make a verb form we always need a basic verb and basic tense.
The present tense form ties the situation close to the situation of the utterance.
The past tense form makes the situation described more remote from the situation of the utterance.
Lecture of 30.11.2011
Situations in the future are treated differently they are inherently nonfactual. So they are relatively certain or relatively unlikely / impossible. The verb form traditionally called future tense and actually expressed by a modal verb.
Consepts: Verb forms
Remote + factual Past
Non-remote + factual Present
Non-remote + non-factual future
Remote + non-factual hypothetical mood + inf.
Future events are not treated as facts they’re only possibilities. The form of the form used in statements about hypothetical situations are usually described in past tense forms, but their reference is clearly not to past time. The distinction between will and would in terms of remoteness possibility is also found in other pairs of modal verbs.
Reference to time.
The widely recognized difference in time between situations can be interpreted in terms remoteness in time from the time of utterance.
Generally adverbial expressions of time are usually used to be expressing time frames. They don’t determine how the speaker may choose to mark the relative remoteness of the event by a tense. The expression like today can establish a time frame for talking about the events remote for the speaker and … used past tense or non-remote by a present tense.
Historical present.
A clear illustration of this point is the historical present. It’s usually described as a way of making storytelling events more vivid. It tells about events less remote and experience despite its remoteness in time. (E.g. Last night Blacky comes in with a huge rat and drops it right at my feet)
The common use of past tense in English would seem to mean more remote interpretation that past time interpretation..
Aspect.
In discussing tense we concentrate on location of the situation. In order to talk about aspect we need to look inside it. The grammatical expression of aspect is accomplished by a perfect and progressive form of the verb.
Durative aspect denotes activities (run, eat, etc.) and processes.
The basic grammatical distinction is marked by 2 forms of the verb. They’re traditionally described as forms of the verb be + present participle for the progressive and have + participle for perfect.
Grammatical aspect Lexical aspect Meaning
perfect dynamic Completed activity retrospectively viewed
perfect stative
progressive dynamic Ongoing activity
progressive stative Temporary state.
Meanings in context.
The distinction in tense between past and present has a typical application in organizing information in discourse.
Information that is of current concern in the foreground will be expressed in the present tense.
Background scene-setting especially in stories is often expressed in past progressive and ongoing current situations in present progressive.
Lecture of 07.12.2011
Viewing recent changes from the current situation is typically expressed by the perfect aspect, but the dominant contrast is between background and foreground information.
Magazine article.
Past simple
Was mostly ignored
Physician believed
They were wrong
The sequence of writers presentation is traced through the verb forms from a remote factual situation, past tenses, through some changes that are look through current situation and recent changes to a specific result that is viewed as ongoing. In academic writing the results of different research studies are being reviewed. There’s a tendency to use past tense form to report on research that is identified as a finding that the author used …
Generalizations are expressed in present tense. Some specific results are reported in the past tense. The choice of type of statement and particularily .. has a clear influence on the status of the information. A current statement of fact present tense gives the information much more authority.
In the news report. In contrast to narrity which has the focus on past events the typicas news report is designed to focus on recent changes and the current situation.
Headlines are inevitably in present tense. Also noticeable that the foregrounding of recent changes goes from the use of perfect aspect with present tense and these forms are sometimes called the “hot news perfects”.
Background – specific acts, events, old focus, settings – past
Foreground – general statements, facts, present focus
Non-finite forms.
Verbids are the forms of the verb that have intermediary position, because of their lexico-grammatical … between the verb and non processual parts of speech.
The processual meaning is exposed by them in a substantive or adjectival adverbial interpretation. They render processes as peculiar kinds of substances and properties. They can be combined with verbs like non-processual lexemes.
The infinitive is used in 3 types of functions:
• Notional \ self-positional syntactic part of the sentence.
• Notional constituent …
Lecture of 14.12.2011
The self-positional infinitive performs the functions of all types of notional sentence parts: subject, object, predicative attribute, adverbial modifier. If the infinitive in free use has its own subject it’s introduced by the prepositional particle for.
• Subject. To meet the head of administration and not to speak with him was unwise.
• Object. The CEO arranged to receive foreign delegation tomorrow.
• Predicative position. The parents wish had always been to see their son the continuator of their work.
• Attributive position. Here again we’re faced with the plot to overthrow the legimately elected government of the country
• Adverbial position. She was far too worried to listen to him
The English infinitive exists in presentation form: with the prepositional marker “to” and called the to-infinitive“ and the other form characteristic of the bound uses and it’s just a pure verb stem. (bare infinitive)
The infinitive marker to is a verb morpheme. As in the case with other analytical markers the article to can be used in isolated position to represent the whole corresponding construction which in the text can be syntegmatically zeroed.
Thus the to-infinitive is analytical grammatical form and the use or non-use of the marker. The infinitive is categorialy changeable forms. It has three grammatically categories.
• The aspective category of development ()
• The aspective category of retrospective coordination.
Gerund.
Similar to the infinitive the gerund serves as the verbal name of the process. The gerund can be modified by a noun in the possessive case and it can be used with prepositions. As different from the infinitive the gerund doesn’t join the conjugation of the verb.
Present participle.
It combines the properties of the verb with those of adjectives and adverb. The present participle is wholly homonymous with the gerund ending with the suffix –ing and has the same grammatical categories of retrospective coordination and voice. It has no categorical time distinctions.
Combinability.
Verb type
Nouns expressing the object
Nouns expressing the subject of the action
With auxiliary finite verbs in the analytical forms of the verb.
Adverb type
Participle + modified verb.
Functions: predicative position, attribute, adverbial modifiers.
Lecture of 21.12.2011
Past participle is non-finite form of the verb which combines properties of the verb + adjective. Serving as qualifying processiual name. Past participle is the single form having no paradigm on its own.
The past participle is included in the structure information of the present participle (perfect passive). When used in attributive function its meaning of the perfect and passive are expressed in the correlation. Like the present participle it’s capable of making semi predicative constructions of complex object and complex subject.
The mood is a category constituted by sets of forms of the Indicative mood, Imperative, Conditional, Subjunctive and Suppositional.
When the action is set to be in correspondence … in terms of its actualization in terms past, present or future we speak of the indicative mood. The core of this mood subsystem is constituted by the forms of present, past or future
Subjunctive mood is a grammatical form which denotes an action or state as supposed, imagined or contrary the fact.
Conditional mood is very closely related to the subjunctive and based on 2 auxiliary verbs should and would.
Suppositional mood. The categorical of suppositional meaning rendered by …
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Theoretical English
Lecture of 7.09.2011
• The subject of theoretical grammar. The branches of grammas and the connection of grammar with other disciplines.
• Levels of language, syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations.
Language is social by nature. As the society is changing the language is changing too.
Language consists of 3 parts: phonological, lexical and grammar systems.
The phonological system is the set of material appear of the units.
Lexical system is the set of the meaning units. (words and word combinations)
Grammatical system is the set of regularities determining the regulation of these means.
The analytical aims to get insides of the structure and to expose the mechanisms of functioning of these levels. The aim of theoretical grammar is the present the theoretical description.
Mood, voice, number, aspect, tense, communicative purpose.
The nature of grammar is better understood in the light of: the plain of content, the plain of expressions.
The plain of content comprises the purely semantic elements and the plain of expression – material or formal units. (they’re always inseparately connected)
Polysemy, homonymy and synonymy.
The morphemic material element as the plain of expression homonynically refers to the grammatical 3rd person singular of the verb. Pres. Tense, the plural of the noun and possessive case of nouns.
Modern linguistics lays the special stress on the systemic character of language and on it’s constituence.
The units of interdependecies are: classes and subclasses of words, and subtypes of syntactic constructions. Each system is structure of elements connected by common function.
The difference between language and speech. Language is just a system of means of expression. Speech should be understood as the process of manifestation of the system of language.
Language and speech are inseparable.
Syntegmatic and paradigmatic relations. The units of language are of 2 types segmental and supersegmental. Segmental consists of phonems which are the smallest material segments of the language.
The units of each level are characterized by their own functional features. The first level is formed by phonems. Phonems diffirenciate the meanings of morphems and words. The shortest morphem can consist of one phonem. The meaning of morphem is abstract and significative.
Lecture of 14.07.2011
They’re nominative units which express nominative meanings.
The fourth level – word combinations.
Can express things actions qualities and even situation (a complicated task, their sudden departure.)
The fifth level – sentence. Express predication. They show the relations to the event of reality. (real/unreal, desire/obligatory, )
The sixth level – supraphrasal unities/text. The text is characterized by a number of features, the name is the unity of topic.
Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations.
Syntagma is a linear combination of the units of the same level. The morphems can be also united in syntagmatic relations.
Paradigmatic relations. (a child, children; go, went, gone.) Paradigm is the system of variants of the same unit. Paradigmatic relations are relations between the invariance of different unit.
Associative relations are kept in our minds.
Sentences can be organized into paradigms according to the category purpose of communication.
Paradigmatic relations coexist with syntagmatic relations.
The minimum paradigm consists of 2 form stages.
• Grammatical meaning. Grammatical form. Grammatical category. Grammatical meanings.
• Types of grammatical oppositions.
совокупность значений противопоставленных друг другу, регулярно выражаемых одним и тем же способом.
Грамматические категории опосредованно связаны с реальными закономерностями.
Грамматическое значение слова – значение, выражаемое типизированными формальными средствами характерными для грамматического класса слов.
В языках мира существует 9 основных способов выражения грамматических значений. Некоторые из них связаны с морфологическими категориями, некоторые с синтаксическими.
• Аффиксация – грамматическое значение выражается при помощи служебных морфем.
• Внутренняя флексия – закономерное чередование гласных внутри корня, или на стыке морфем.
• Повтор или редупликация. (сильный сильный)
• Словосложение
• Служебные слова – специальные слова имеющие грамматическое значение, но не имеющие лексическое.
• Порядок слов
• Ударение – указывает на принадлежность слова к части речи.
• Интонация
• Суплетивизм (person/ people)
The categorical meaning unites the individual meanings of the correlated paradigmagtic forms and exposed through them.
A category is a meaning of the form in the certain position. The ordered set of the grammatical forms expresses the categorical function constitutes a paradigm. Paradigmatic correlations are exposed by grammatical oppositions. The opposition is generalized correlation of linguo forms by means of which a certain function is expressed. Differential features express the function.
Voiced and divoiced consonance.
Gradual opposition. Formed by contrassitive group of members.
In various contextual position one member can be used in the position of the other. This phenomenon is called oppositional substitution. The weak\unmarked member of categorical opposition of number has replaced the strong member. Neutralization of oppositions can happen due to more general semantics of the weak member. The second kind is transposition. All the categorical oppositions can be divided into synthetical and analytical. Build up by combination of at least 2 words. Inner flection, outer flection and suplitivity.
A. Inner flection – phonemic interchange and not productive. Is used in English irregular verbs. (for the formation of past indefinite and past participle)
Suplitivity is not productive either (to be, to go) and irregular forms of comparative and superlative adjectives.
Typical suffixes of nouns, adjectives.
Analytical forms. They’re typical for modern English.
Degrees of comparasing.
Morphemic structures of the verbs and types of morphems.
Morphology is the brunch of linguistics which concerns itself with the structure of words as dependant on the meaning of constituent morphems. Also it’s the system of morphological oppositions in a given language including their grammatical categories which are the unity of form and content.
Phonems have no meaning on their own, they only serve to differentiate the meaning of other units which are morphems. The morphological system of language reveals its properties through the morphemic structures.
Morphems and words. In studying the morphem we actually study the word.
Word is extremely complex and many sided phenomenon. The word can be defined as minimal potential sentence. Minimal free linguistic form. The elementary component of the sentence. The articulate sound symbol. Uninterupted strain of morphems, etc. Thus the definitions of the words can be formal functional and mixed but generically the word is not commonly accepted as the basic element of the language. In particular American scholars, represantatives of desctiptive linguistics founded by Leonard Bloomfield, recognized not the word and sentence, but phonem and morphem as basic unit. These units are the easiest to be isolated in the continual text due to their physicaly minimal segmental character. Phonem is minimal formal segment and morphem is minimal meaningful segment. Each speaker has at his disposal a ready stock of naming units by which he can build up an infinite number of utterances. Reflecting changing situations in reality. A meaningful segmental component of the word formed by phonemes. The word is a nominative unit of language formed by morphems and it enters the lexicon of language as if an elementary component. Together with other nominative units the word is used in the formation of the sentences.
Types of morphemes. In traditional grammarthe study of morphemic structure is based on two main criteria: positional and functional.
Route morphems (they express material part of the meaning) and affixes (specificational part of the meaning)
Inflections or grammatical suffixed express morphological categories.
In the lexicon of everyday speech the preferable morphemic types of stems are route and affix.
Lecture of 28.09.2011
Types of distribution. Distributional morpheme types.
• Significative meaning
• Suplitivity
Allo-emic theory,allomorph,complimentary distribution, contrastive distribution and non-contrastive distribution, distributional analyses, full and empty morphemes, free and bound morphemes, overt and covert morphemes, continuous and discontinuous morphemes.
Allo – other\diffetent.
Insights into the correlation between the formal and functional of morphemes within composition of the word may be gained in the light of allo-emic theory. All linguo units are described by means of allo-terms and eme-terms.
Eme-terms – general invariant.
Allo-terms – concrete manifestations. (variants)
The allo-emic indetification of linguo elements is achieved by distributional analyses. The aim of distributional analysis is to fix and study the units of language dependant on the textural environments.
The environment of the unit may be either right or left.
The distribution of the unit is the total of all its environment in generalized terms.
There are 3 types of distribution (go to termins)
Contrasitive – the morphs are set to be … if their meaning of functions are different. Such morphs constitute different morphemes. (the suffixes –ed and –ing)
The moprhs are set to be in non contrasitive distribution if their meaning is the same. (suffixes –ed and -t)
Complimentary distribution. If 2 or more morphs have same meaning and the difference in their forms explained by different environments these morphs are set to be … and considered the allomorphs of the same morpheme.
On the bases of degree of self-independence the morphemes can be divided into free and bound.
Bound morphemes can’t form words by themselves. They’re indentified only as component segmental part of the word.
Free morphemes can build words by themselves i.e. can be used freely.
There are very few productive bound morphemes.
• (e)s
• (e)d, t
• -ing
• -er\-est
On the basis of linear characteristics continuous and discontinuous morphemes are distinguished.
Discontinuous morphemes uninterruptedly expressed. It’s 2 element grammatical unit, which is identified in the analytical forms and consists of auxiliary word and grammatical suffix.
• Be … ing
• Have … ed\en
• Be … ed\en
Overt and covert morphemes
On the basis of formal presentation overt and covert morphemes are distinguished.
The covert morpheme is identified as a contrastive absence of a … expressing a certain function.
Parts of speech.
Силлогизм – из 2 утверждений появляется 3.
Выделяются 4 класса знаменательных слов:
• Существительное
• Глагол
• Прилагательное
• Наречие
Для их разграничения используются 3 критерия:
• Семантический
• Морфологический
• Синтаксический
Местоимения выделаются на основании замещения.
Lecture of 05.10.2011
The problems of parts of speech classification
The classification of word classes has always been one of contaversial issues of linguistics.
The term parts of speech itself present a certain problem. It was developed in ancient Greek linguistics and it reflects that there was no distinction between speech and language. And also they didn’t make difference between word as a part utterance and part of lexis. Therefore the term parts of speech is accepted by modern linguists as conventional. The parts of speech is lexico-grammatical … of words correlating with each other in the general system of language on the basis of their grammatically relevant properties. They are semantic, formal and functional. Semantic criteria refers to generalized semantic properties, common to the whole class of words eg. The meaning of nouns is thinness, the meaning of verb is process, the meaning of adjectives is substantive property. The formal criteria describes word building and word changing, characteristics for particular parts of speech eg. The noun is characterized by specific set of word building affixes. The noun can be changed according to the categories of number, case and article determinations. Function critera is based on the function that the words of particular class fulfill in the sentence. Traditional … is based on three criteria.
Виноградов, Смирницкий.
All parts of speech are subdivided in functional and notional. … They have incomplete nominative value. They’re unchangeable, constructional syntactic function. Controversial points in traditional classification. The 3 criteria turn out to be relevant just for the subdivision of notional words. Functional words are characterized by the absence of all 3 together. They don’t have their syntactic function on their own. Border lines between different classes of words are quite rigorous. Finite and non-finite(inf. Gerund, Participle ) verbs forms. In accord with the functional characteristics of word classes this approach is more expressive. And it was developed by representatives of descriptive linguistics. (Harris, Bloomfield etc.) They selected the most widely used grammatical constructions and used them as substitution frames. Those frames were divided into parts and each of them got a separate number. Then they conducted the series of substitution tests to find out which words can be used in each of the positions. Eg. The concert was good. The clerk remembered the tax.
All the words that can be used in the place of article made into one group, the ones that could be used instead of “clerk” made another group.
Lecture of 12.10.2011
The article, the preposition, the conjunction, the particle, the modal verbs and the interjection (междометие) are all functional words.
The article expresses specific limitation of the substantive functions.
The preposition expresses dependences and interdependences of substantive reference.
The conjunction expresses the connections of the phenomena.
The particle unites the functional words of specifying and limited meaning.
To these series should be referred verbal postpositions.
The modal verbs express the attitude of the speaker to the reflective situation.
Here belong the functional words of probability. (qualitative evaluations (fortunately, luckily))
Interjections are just signals of the notions. It occupies the detached position in the sentence.
Each part of speech is further subdivided into subseries.
The nouns can be subdivided into – proper and common, animate and inanimate, countable and uncountable, concrete and abstract.
The verbs are subdivieed into – transitive and intransitive, actional and state, etc.
Adjectives are subdivided into – qualitative and relative, constant feature and temporary feature.
Категория числа, падежа и определенности\неопределенности и рода.
Количественная характеристика предмета выражается формами числа, только если эта форма исчисляемая. В английском языке она поддерживается наличием или отсутствием неопределенного артикля. В классе неисчисляемых существительных, к которым относятся вещественные и абстрактные формы, множественного числа нет, а форма единственного числа лишена количественного значения. Эта категория выражается другими лексическими средствами. (few, some, a little) В обоих языках есть собирательные существительные у которых значение множественности а форма единственного числа(group, family, police). Некоторые из собирательных существительных допускают расчлененное представление данной совокупности объектов. Некоторые типы собирательных существительных сами являются исчисляемыми (family-families). В обоих языках собирательность может также выражаться как особой лексемой (group of, number of) так и особым суффиксом (-ство, -hood). И в русском и в английском есть существительные которые имеют форму только множественного числа(pluralia tantum), такие как парные объекты (scissors) а также объекты, состоящие из нескольких элементов (slums).
Категория падежа имени существительного. С точки зрения формы, падеж – морфологическая форма, но по содержанию – синтаксическая, поскольку падеж служит для обозначения связи существительного и связанного с ним словом. В древнеанглийском существовало 4 падежа, в современном осталось лишь 2 (общий и притяжательный) [common and possessive case]. Ряд функций в английском языке выражается с помощью порядка слов, а также с помощью предлогов. Редукция безударных окончаний. Но даже при наличие двух падежей в английском представляется проблематичным существование редукции и омонимии.
• Система падежей существительного не совпадает с падежной системой местоимений.
• Возможность употребления английского существительного в форме притяжательного падежа зависит от его лексического значения.
• Существительное в притяжательном падеже употребляется в атрибутивной форме и только в препозиции.
• В английском языке существует групповой притяжательный падеж.
• При употреблении английского существительного во множественном числе проблематично существование формы притяжательного.
• В английском, притяжательный падеж имеет ограниченный набор значений.
Падежная система английского языка отражает лишь один тип синтаксических отношений – атрибутивные отношения в словосочетаниях.
Категория рода. Собственно грамматической категории рода в английском нет. Хотя существует некоторый набор лексических и словообразовательных способов родовой и половой принадлежности. Существует корреляция по роду между некоторыми типами существительных и заменяющими их местоимениями. При олицетворении в баснях используется местоимение мужского рода в независимости от пола.
Lecture of 19.10.2011
(- синтагма, I парадигма)
Сказки. Любое животное в сказках представлено как существо мужского пола, за исключением случаев, когда специально указывается женский пол или поведение.
Название судов и транспортных средств традиционно соотносится с женским родом, но если нейтральных, то средний род.
При употреблении ласкательного оттенка по отношению к неодушевленному предмету, употребляется одушевление (he/she). В русском языке метафорической соотнесенности не отмечается.
Средний род в основном отмечается у неодушевленных предметов.
Словообразовательные суффиксы (woman-teacher; manservant; boy-friend; he-wolf; billy-goat; nanny-goat)
Категория определенности\неопределенности.
Эта категория в английском выражается через артикли.
Категория семантическая (хотя грамматикализована).
Артикли всегда находятся в препозиции с существительными.
Способы образования:
• Синтаксический способ (с помощью порядка слов). Обстоятельства места или направления являются ремой. In the middle of the room stood a table. They came a knock in the door.
• Лексический способ (существительное + неопределенное\указательное …) A doctor told me.
• Способ близкий к аффиксации.
The noun as the part of speech has a categorical meaning of substance. As it follows from this the noun is the main nominative part of speech. The noun has the power by way of nomination to isolate different properties of substances. The categorial functional properties of the noun are determined by its semantic properties. The most characteristic substantive function of the noun is that of the subject. Other syntactic functions (predicative, adverbial etc.) aren’t characteristic of its substantive quality.
The noun is characterized by some special types of combinability. In particular typical of the noun is combinability ...
But English nouns can easily combine by sheer contact. In this contact group the noun in preposition plays the role of semantic qualifier to the noun in postposition.
As a part of speech the noun is also characterized by a set of formal features. It has its word building distinctions including compound stem models, conversion patterns etc. It discriminates grammatical categories of gender, number, case and article determination. These formal features taken together are relevant to the division of nouns of several subclasses. The most general subclasses of nouns are grouped into 4 oppositional pairs.
The first – is proper nouns. The foundation of this division is type of nomination.
The second – animate\inanimate nouns.
The third – human\non-human nouns.
There is a regular contradiction between the presentation of gender in English by theoretical … and practical manuals.
In theory gender is defined as purely lexical or semantic.
The category of gender is expressed in English by the obligatory correlation of nouns with the personal pronouns of the third person.
The category of gender is strictly oppositional. It’s formed by 2 oppositions related to each other.
The other opposition functions in subset of person nouns only.
As a result of double oppositional correlation a specific system of 3 genders rises which is misleadingly represented by traditional terminology. (neuter gender, masculine, feminine)
A great many person nouns in English are capable of expressing both feminine and masculine person genders and these are referred to as nouns of (common gender) eg. Person, friend, doctor, president, etc.
Alongside of the grammatical gender distinctions English nouns can show the sex of their reference lexically either by means of being combined with some notional words used as sex indicators or by suffixal
In Russian, german and many other languages characterized by the gender division of nouns the gender has purely formal features that may even run contrary to semantics.
The category of number. That category is expressed by the opposition of the plural form of the noun to the singular form. The strong member is the plural because it has its productive formal mark. The other non-productive ways of expressing the number opposition
Lecture of 26.10.2011
• Category of the number of the noun
• Category of the gender of the noun
• Category of the case of the noun.
The simple meaning of singular is one, opposed to the meaning of the plural in the sense of more than one. (book-books)
However there exist singulars and plurals that can’t be counted by this approach. (Eg. Potato – potatoes, paper (material) – papers (notes))
It’s sometimes stated that plural form presents both multiplicity of units of measure or invisible object.
To other varieties belong the cases where plural form expresses the definite set of objects. (eyes, wheels)
Intensity of the presentation of the idea. (years and years)
Picturesque.
The extreme point of this semantic scale is marked by lexicalization of the plural form.
Attentions (wooing)
The most general quantity of characteristics of individual words constitute lexico-grammatical base for division of the nouns into countable and uncountable
The constant categorical feature cuantatitive is closely connected with … since uncountable nouns can be either singular or plural
In the sentence they take the finite form of singular while plural uncountable take the finite in the plural.
Singularia tantum and plularia tantum.
The absolute singular is characteristic of abstract notions.
Always singural: the names of materials, of collective inanimate objects.
Since the grammatical form of uncountable nouns of singularia tantum subclass isn’t excluded by the category of number we speak of it as absolute singular and it’s different from common singular of the countable nouns.
The absolute singular excludes the using of modifying numeral one as well as indefinite article.
Common number with uncountable singular nouns can also be expressed by combining them with words showing discreetness.
And this kind of rendering the grammatical meaning of common number can be regarded a special suplitivuty.
The absolute plural is different from common plural cannot directly combine with numerals and only occasionally combines with discreet quantifiers.
Characteristic of uncountable nouns which denotes objects consisting of 2 halves. The nouns expressing some sort of collective meaning rendering the idea of indefinite plurality.
Nouns denoting some diseases and states of body and mind (usually abnormal)
Last type consists repetition groups.
Category of case. Different case theories.
Case is morphological category of the noun. Represented in the forms of noun declention.
Thus the case form of the noun is a morphological declention of form
This category is expressed by a opposition of the form in “ ‘s ” usually called possessive or genetive case.
Lecture of 2.11.2011
All the nounal cases the march spoken genitive are considered as extinct. And the linguo unit which is called genitive case by force of tradition would be in reality just a combination of a noun with postposition. Thus this theory could be called “Theory of possessive postposition”.
Direct and oblique cases. A 2 case declension of nouns should be recognized in English with it’s common case as direct one and the genitive one as the only oblique. But unlike the case system in ordinary noun declensional languages based on inflectional word change the case system in English is founded on the particle expression. The particle nature of apostrophe –s is evident from the fact that it’s added in postposition both to individual nouns and to nounal groups.
The following basic semantic types of genitive case.
Genetive of possessor means possessional relation in the broad sense.
The meaning of organic possession.
The genitive of agent. This form renders and activity or some brought-up processional relations with the referent with the genitive and it’s subject.
The genitive of patient. It expresses the recipient of the action or process denoted by head noun.
The genitive of dispenced qualification.
The genitive of adverbial.
Article is a determining unit of specific nature accompanying the noun in communicative collocation. Its special characters clearly seen against background of determining words of half notional … where is the functions of determiners (this,any,some) is to explicitly interpret the referent of the noun, the semantic purpose of the article is to specify the nounal referent in the most general way without any explicitly expressed contrasts.
In the absence of the determiner the use of the article is obligatory.
The definite article expresses the identification or individualization of the referent of the noun. The use of this article shows that the object denoted mistaken in its concrete individual quality. This meaning can be brought to explicit exposition by a substitution test. The test consists in replacing the article used in a construction by a demonstrative word.
The indefinite article is commonly referred noting the object denoted by the noun to a such a class of similar objects.
Zero article (meaningful non-use of the article)
• Meaningful absence of the article before the countable noun in the singular signifies that the noun is taken in abstract sense. (Law begins with the beginning of human society)
• Before the uncountable noun.
Часто в словосочетаниях сущ+сущ трудно ограничить что это.
В разговорной речи чаще используется аналитическая форма, а если прилаг. В форме определения то синтетическая.
Прилагательное в русском языке может иметь краткую и полную форму. В английском кратких нет.
Категория состояния.
The adjective expresses the categorical semantic property of a substance. It means that each adjective which used in the text presupposes the relation to some noun the property of whose referent it denotes.
Its material, color, dimensions, position, state, and other characteristics that can be permanent or temporary. It follows from these that unlike nouns adjectives don’t possess full nominative value.
Lecture of 9.11.2011
The adjective has semantically bound character. And this semantically bound character is emphasized by the use of the word substitute “one(s)” in the absence of the notional head noun. If the adjective is placed in a self-dependant position this leads to substantivazation. Adjectives are distinguished by a specific combinability with nouns which they modify by a combinability with link verbs. (to be\get) And also by combinability with combined adverbs.
In the sentence the adjectve performs a role of attribute and a predicative. The predicative adjective expresses some attributive property of its own referent. When used as predicative or postpositional attributes a lot of adjectives are distinguished by complementive combinability with nouns. The complement expansions of adjectives are reflected by means of prepositions.
Many such collectival collocations render verbal meanings and some of them have direct or indirect parallels among verbs.
To the derivational features of adjectives belong a number of suffixes and prefixes. (-ful, -able, -ess, -nt, -(a)l, -ive, -ly, -y, -ous, -ic, -ish) (a-, un-, im-, ir-, il-, dis-)
The classes of adjectives. All the adjectives are divided into 2 large classes: qualitative and relatative.
Relatative adjectives express such .. of a substance as are determined by the direct relation of the substance to some other substances. (wooden heart, surgical treatment, medieval rights)
Qualitative adjectives denote qualitative substance which admit quantitative estimation. The measure of the quality can be estimated as high and low, sufficient and insufficient. This quality expressed by the usage of modifying adverbs (very, absolutely, rather, quite, extremely)
In this connection the ability of the adjective to form degrees of comparison of its qualitative character.
Among the words signifying properties of a nounal referent there is a lexemic set which can be recognized as a separate part of speech.
The category of adjectival comparison expresses the quantitative characteristic of a quality of a nounal referent.
Verb as a part of speech.
Grammatically the verb is the most complex part of speech. This is due to its central role that It performs in the expression of predicative functions of the sentence that is the functions establishing the connection between the situation named in the utterance and the reality. The general categorical meaning of the verb is process presented dynamically that is developing in time.
The processual semantic character of the verbal lexeme in the non-finite form is proved by the fact that in all its forms it’s modified by the adverb. The processual categorical meaning of the notional verb determines its characteristic combinability expressing both the doer of the action and the recipient of the action.
From the point of view of their outward structure verbs are characterized by specific forms of word-building and by the formal features expressing the corresponding grammatical categories.
Lecture of 16.11.2011
The original simple verbs stems are not numerous. (E.g. go, take, read)
Conversion (zero suffixation) (noun verb) greatly enlarges the number of such stems.
Sound replacive and stress replacive aren’t productive (food – to feed, blood – to bleed)
Expanded forms (with the help of suffixes –ate, - en, - ify, -ize)
The prefixes that can also prevent to verb stem (-en\-em,)
Composite or compound stems correspond to non-verb stems from which they etiologically derived.
The category of finitude which divides the category to finite and non-finite.
Among the various forms of the verb the infinitive occupy the unique position. It’s principal representative of the verb …
Semi-notional and functional verbs only show the connection between the nominative content of the sentence and the reality.
The basis for the verb division is subject …
Action verbs express an action performed by a subject.
According to if the verb can or can’t have the power to take compliment or object, the notional verbs can be classified as complementive or uncomplementive.
Verbal objectivity is an ability of the verb to take any object.
To make a verb form we always need a basic verb and basic tense.
The present tense form ties the situation close to the situation of the utterance.
The past tense form makes the situation described more remote from the situation of the utterance.
Lecture of 30.11.2011
Situations in the future are treated differently they are inherently nonfactual. So they are relatively certain or relatively unlikely / impossible. The verb form traditionally called future tense and actually expressed by a modal verb.
Consepts: Verb forms
Remote + factual Past
Non-remote + factual Present
Non-remote + non-factual future
Remote + non-factual hypothetical mood + inf.
Future events are not treated as facts they’re only possibilities. The form of the form used in statements about hypothetical situations are usually described in past tense forms, but their reference is clearly not to past time. The distinction between will and would in terms of remoteness possibility is also found in other pairs of modal verbs.
Reference to time.
The widely recognized difference in time between situations can be interpreted in terms remoteness in time from the time of utterance.
Generally adverbial expressions of time are usually used to be expressing time frames. They don’t determine how the speaker may choose to mark the relative remoteness of the event by a tense. The expression like today can establish a time frame for talking about the events remote for the speaker and … used past tense or non-remote by a present tense.
Historical present.
A clear illustration of this point is the historical present. It’s usually described as a way of making storytelling events more vivid. It tells about events less remote and experience despite its remoteness in time. (E.g. Last night Blacky comes in with a huge rat and drops it right at my feet)
The common use of past tense in English would seem to mean more remote interpretation that past time interpretation..
Aspect.
In discussing tense we concentrate on location of the situation. In order to talk about aspect we need to look inside it. The grammatical expression of aspect is accomplished by a perfect and progressive form of the verb.
Durative aspect denotes activities (run, eat, etc.) and processes.
The basic grammatical distinction is marked by 2 forms of the verb. They’re traditionally described as forms of the verb be + present participle for the progressive and have + participle for perfect.
Grammatical aspect Lexical aspect Meaning
perfect dynamic Completed activity retrospectively viewed
perfect stative
progressive dynamic Ongoing activity
progressive stative Temporary state.
Meanings in context.
The distinction in tense between past and present has a typical application in organizing information in discourse.
Information that is of current concern in the foreground will be expressed in the present tense.
Background scene-setting especially in stories is often expressed in past progressive and ongoing current situations in present progressive.
Lecture of 07.12.2011
Viewing recent changes from the current situation is typically expressed by the perfect aspect, but the dominant contrast is between background and foreground information.
Magazine article.
Past simple
Was mostly ignored
Physician believed
They were wrong
The sequence of writers presentation is traced through the verb forms from a remote factual situation, past tenses, through some changes that are look through current situation and recent changes to a specific result that is viewed as ongoing. In academic writing the results of different research studies are being reviewed. There’s a tendency to use past tense form to report on research that is identified as a finding that the author used …
Generalizations are expressed in present tense. Some specific results are reported in the past tense. The choice of type of statement and particularily .. has a clear influence on the status of the information. A current statement of fact present tense gives the information much more authority.
In the news report. In contrast to narrity which has the focus on past events the typicas news report is designed to focus on recent changes and the current situation.
Headlines are inevitably in present tense. Also noticeable that the foregrounding of recent changes goes from the use of perfect aspect with present tense and these forms are sometimes called the “hot news perfects”.
Background – specific acts, events, old focus, settings – past
Foreground – general statements, facts, present focus
Non-finite forms.
Verbids are the forms of the verb that have intermediary position, because of their lexico-grammatical … between the verb and non processual parts of speech.
The processual meaning is exposed by them in a substantive or adjectival adverbial interpretation. They render processes as peculiar kinds of substances and properties. They can be combined with verbs like non-processual lexemes.
The infinitive is used in 3 types of functions:
• Notional \ self-positional syntactic part of the sentence.
• Notional constituent …
Lecture of 14.12.2011
The self-positional infinitive performs the functions of all types of notional sentence parts: subject, object, predicative attribute, adverbial modifier. If the infinitive in free use has its own subject it’s introduced by the prepositional particle for.
• Subject. To meet the head of administration and not to speak with him was unwise.
• Object. The CEO arranged to receive foreign delegation tomorrow.
• Predicative position. The parents wish had always been to see their son the continuator of their work.
• Attributive position. Here again we’re faced with the plot to overthrow the legimately elected government of the country
• Adverbial position. She was far too worried to listen to him
The English infinitive exists in presentation form: with the prepositional marker “to” and called the to-infinitive“ and the other form characteristic of the bound uses and it’s just a pure verb stem. (bare infinitive)
The infinitive marker to is a verb morpheme. As in the case with other analytical markers the article to can be used in isolated position to represent the whole corresponding construction which in the text can be syntegmatically zeroed.
Thus the to-infinitive is analytical grammatical form and the use or non-use of the marker. The infinitive is categorialy changeable forms. It has three grammatically categories.
• The aspective category of development ()
• The aspective category of retrospective coordination.
Gerund.
Similar to the infinitive the gerund serves as the verbal name of the process. The gerund can be modified by a noun in the possessive case and it can be used with prepositions. As different from the infinitive the gerund doesn’t join the conjugation of the verb.
Present participle.
It combines the properties of the verb with those of adjectives and adverb. The present participle is wholly homonymous with the gerund ending with the suffix –ing and has the same grammatical categories of retrospective coordination and voice. It has no categorical time distinctions.
Combinability.
Verb type
Nouns expressing the object
Nouns expressing the subject of the action
With auxiliary finite verbs in the analytical forms of the verb.
Adverb type
Participle + modified verb.
Functions: predicative position, attribute, adverbial modifiers.
Lecture of 21.12.2011
Past participle is non-finite form of the verb which combines properties of the verb + adjective. Serving as qualifying processiual name. Past participle is the single form having no paradigm on its own.
The past participle is included in the structure information of the present participle (perfect passive). When used in attributive function its meaning of the perfect and passive are expressed in the correlation. Like the present participle it’s capable of making semi predicative constructions of complex object and complex subject.
The mood is a category constituted by sets of forms of the Indicative mood, Imperative, Conditional, Subjunctive and Suppositional.
When the action is set to be in correspondence … in terms of its actualization in terms past, present or future we speak of the indicative mood. The core of this mood subsystem is constituted by the forms of present, past or future
Subjunctive mood is a grammatical form which denotes an action or state as supposed, imagined or contrary the fact.
Conditional mood is very closely related to the subjunctive and based on 2 auxiliary verbs should and would.
Suppositional mood. The categorical of suppositional meaning rendered by …
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